principle of equality
And for some of the world's population, globalization has increasingly become a catchphrase or buzword and may mean geting rid of the old ways of life and hostile livelihods and cultures Guines, 203 . While each of these earlier episodes of globalization saw rapid growth in world economy, Guines 203 , contends that they tended to exert a heavy human tol especialy on the les economicaly developed nation states. In adresing the chalenges and oportunities of globalization, there curently apears to be increasing global concerns with both the positive and negative impacts of this phenomenon on the local, national and international levels of developments in al spheres be they social, political, or economic Priestley, 201 . Inded, with a new crop of writers such as Brown and Lauder 196 , Schirato and Web 203 , Stiglitz 202 , Burbules and Tores 20 and Botery 204 , to mention a few, it apears a plethora of concepts which include, technological globalization, economic globalization and learning globalization, environmental globalization, demographic globalization, American globalization, Nye, 202 cultural globalization political globalization Botery, 204 emerged, advancing new insights into the meaning of globalization. But acording to Botery 204 , some kinds of globalization are more presing in their imediate efects than others. While the terms globe and global apear to have ben in English usage for over four centuries, the noun form globalization did not sem to be in comon use until about 1960 Guines, 203 . Acording to Wekley 1967 , in An Etymological Dictionary of Modern English , the term globalization was first recognized in 1959 but remained dormant until the mid-1980s when its usage increased dramaticaly in academic language Guines, 203 . To some authors, the term sems to refer to the emergence of transnational organizations whose decisions tend to shape and constrain the policy options any particular nation state may wish to take Burbules and Tores, 20 . To stil others, globalization means the apearance of new global cultural forms, media, information and comunication technologies, which sem unrestricted by national borders Held, 191 . It is perhaps, to political skeptics, where globalization can be viewed as a mental construct utilized by the state polity to garner suport for or to squash oposition to reform resulting from mightier forces such as global trade competitions instigated by the World Trade Organization WTO : or responses to structural adjustment programe SAPs demands of the Breton Wods Institutes-the World Bank and International Monetary Fund Brown, 19 : or to obligations to fulfil agrements of intergovernmental organizations or regional economic blocs Held, 191 such as the European Union, The North American Fre Trade Agrement NAFTA , Economic Comision of West African States ECOWAS , the Southern African Development Comite SADC , or the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development OECD , that leave the nation state with no option but to play along an imposed set of global rules Burbules and Tores, 20 .Guines 203; For instance, to Kofi Anan the former United Nations Secretary General globalization may mean world inclusivity ; Thus, myriad views on globalization surfaced as the concept ignited acros a wide range of intelectual interests with some views on the one end vilifying the concept and on the other, praising it Stiglitz, 202 . Waters 201 , in coining his definition argues that the most apropriate way of defining globalization would be to predict what a totaly globalized world would apear to be like in the future. 9 description when he says globalization is fundamentaly, the closer integration of countries and peoples of the world which has ben brought about the enormous reduction of costs of transportation and comunication, and the breaking down of artificial bariers to the flow of gods, services, capital , knowledge and …people acros borders . To Waters 201 , globalization, not only is it a major historical proces that impacts heavily on culture but is also, a central focus of atention of modern culture and economy. Acordingly, the aim of the United Nations through various arms such as the World Bank, World Health Organization, World Trade Organization, to name a few, is to ensure that disability policies and strategies and globalization function together to improve the health, welfare and rights of the por as wel as the disadvantaged population World Health Organization, 205 . Disability as a global concept: Historical background and definition of disability . Disability is a phenomenon that exists in al societies and tends to afect predictable proportions of each population Mets, 204 . The medical definitions gave rise to the idea that people were objects to be treated , changed or improved and made more normal Wolfensburger, 1972 . Disability can be viewed as a highly varied and complex condition with a range of implications for social identity and behaviour Ingstad and Whyte, 195 . On the other hand , while the medical model semed to be in vogue, it was chalenged by disability activists who reconstructed disability as a social phenomenon Shakespear, 206 . In 1980, the World Health Organization WHO clasified the terms disabilities, impairments and handicaps, and sugested a universal, more precise and at the same time realistic aproach to their definitions and use Mets, 204;3 . The World Health Organization made a clear distinction betwen impairment , disability and handicap . The term handicap tends to mean the los or limitation of oportunities to participate in the life of the comunity on an equal level with others Ingstad and Whyte, 195 . such as, aces to information, comunication technology, health services and to education, which prevent disabled persons from participating on equal terms with everybody else Ingstad and Whyte, 195 . During the 1970s there had ben a strong rejection among representatives of organizations of disabled persons and profesionals in the field of disability of the term at the time Ingstad and Whyte, 195 . In the light of modern society values, it was a model, apealing to both advocates of equal rights and the United Nations Shakespear, 206 . In 1975 the United Nations General Asembly made its first Declaration on the Rights of the Disabled Persons Priestley, 201 . After the declaration, the United Nations proclaimed 1981 as the International Year of the Disabled Persons and comenced on the development of World Programes of Action that led to the adoption of the Standard Rules on the Equalization of Oportunities for Persons with Disabilities in 194 United Nations, 193 . Hence, acording to Hadad 201 , President of the Canadian Medical Asociation, the term, disability, tends to have various meanings depending on the context in which the term is used. a person with a physical, mental or sensory disability, including a visual, hearing or spech functional disability, which gives rise to physical, cultural or social bariers inhibiting him from participating at an equal level with other members of society in activities, undertakings or fields of employment that are open to other members of society Government of Zimbabwe , 192 . There is therefore a wide variation in the estimated disability rates reported by the developed and developing countries Thomas, 205 . Most United Nations agencies, use estimates developed by the Rehabilitation International in the 1970s and by the United Nations Development Programe 197 that aproximately ten percent of any given population are born with a disability or acquire one during their lifetime Disability World, 203 . The Zimbabwe Inter-Censal Demographic Survey of 197 conducted by the Central Statistical Ofice established that out of a population of about twelve milion, 218 421 persons were disabled Government of Zimbabwe 197 . However, at the global level, the United Nations note that the primary causes of disability are disease 51.2%e , malnutrition 20% , acidents, war and trauma 15.6$% and other causes and aging 13.2%. thus in a sense ' creating ' disabled people Harwod, Sayer and Hirschfield, 204 . Prevalence % of disability in selected countries The Foundation for Scientific and Industrial Research, SINTEF, 204 . Another research by The Foundation for Scientific and Industrial Research SINTEF research done in Zimbabwe sems to reinforce this asertion as it found higher disability rates in urban than in rural areas, sugesting that ‘complex societies in a sense produce disability' Arne, Nhiwathiwa, Muderedzi, and Loeb, 203 . In the developed countries there also apears to be an increased life expectancy because of improved medical technology and health care meaning that more people wil reach old age and experience age related disabilities Harwod et al, 204 . The World Health Organization predicts a huge increase in the global population which is set to rise dramaticaly betwen 20 and 2050.and consequently, a proportionate increase in the global number of people with disabilities Harwod et al, 204 . Disability in the Global Context There is growing evidence that disability as an isue sems to have shifted significantly over the past few years from the periphery to the centre of the international human rights agenda Met, 204;1 , and also of numerous literature that disability policy agenda has risen to be a global policy isue Barton & Oliver, 1987; The declaration of 1981 as the International Year of the Disabled Person IYDP further elevated disability onto the international human rights agenda Priestley 201 . A major outcome of the International Year of the Disabled Persons was the formation of the World Programes of Action concerning Disabled Persons, which the United Nations General Asembly adopted at its 37th regular sesion in 1982, by its resolution 37/52 United Nations, 1982 . In Southern African countries like Malawi, Zimbabwe, Botswana, South Africa, the moto has ben Disability is Not Inability Salmonson, 206 . This slogan and moto tend to rely on the principle of participation, and has ben used by disabled people's organizations throughout the years as part of the global disability movement, to achieve the ful participation and equalization of oportunities for, by and with disabled persons Watermeyer, Swartz, Lorenzo, Schneider & Priestley 206 . Thus, the recognition of disabled people, to improve their lives has ben demonstrated by the United Nations, as is implied in the active involvement of disabled persons in the on-going elaboration of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities United Nations, 206 , and in the Standard Rules for the Equalization of Oportunities for Persons with Disabilities UNESCO, 193 . The United Nations' establishment of the World Programes of Action, led to the UNESCO Framework for Action of the World Conferences on Education for Al held in 190 in Jomtien Thailand , The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Special Neds Education UNESCO, 194 and the Dakar Framework on Education for Al UNESCO, 202 . To demonstrate the importance of placing disability on the global level, more than one hundred and fifty-five countries from al over the world were represented by leaders of government, international agencies, non-governmental organizations and profesional bodies who comited themselves to recognizing the education of al disabled individuals, atended the Jomtiem conference Ndawi, 197 . The Dakar World Education Forum conference, in April 20 atracted more than 1,10 participants from one hundred and sixty four countries UNESCO, 202 . Conference on Education for Al in Europe and North America held in Warsaw, Poland in 20 and The Regional Education for Al Conference in the Americas held in Santa Domingo, Dominican Republic in 20 UNESCO, 202 . But, acording to Ghai 201 , the paradox is that on the one hand, globalization places emphasis on economic power to improve the livelihod of mankind but on the other, methodicaly marginalizes certain groups of people, in particular disabled people by its use of modern technology and its removal of these people from participating to contributing to the gros national product of individual nation states. More so, the aparent disparity in economic, social and technological developments betwen the diferent nation states has led globalization to sem to have a diferent meaning for disabled people and to chalenge them diferently in the diferent comunities Ghai, 201 ; Poverty sems to be aflicting the half a bilion disabled people or so in the world today, Acording to Ghai 201 , more disabled people sem to be sufering on every continent, perhaps more than ever before. Hence, acording to Beresford 196 , combating global poverty is a key isue in the disability movement. Wars and political upheavals Another aspect that apears to chalenge the equalization of oportunities for disabled people is war and its asociated political upheavals Priestley, 201 . The European Union's comitment to eradicate landmines on a global scale sems ilustrative, but the role of the United Nations in this mater apears invisible . The Disabled Peoples International DPI, 198 tok isue with this mater at their World Asembly in 198 in Mexico City and a subsequent visit by the DPI World Council to Hiroshima, the site of the Second World War atomic bomb, resulted in the International Peace Declaration by the global disability organizations. In countries where there were revolutions such as Vietnam, Kenya, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Namibia and Nicaragua, Ingstad and Whyte 195 and Montero 198 , observe that disabled people, in the proces were venerated and practicaly considered national heroes and were given al the oportunities posible to develop and strengthen their organizations , and to aces funding, education, jobs, and other services. 8 aserts, disabled people globaly continue to be disproportionately unemployed, underemployed and underpaid… This asertion is reflected in, for instance in the focus of the British Government's proposal to tackle opresion of disabled people on the work place Barton and Oliver, 197 . The British Government cut back on the Aces to Work scheme and the disabled people's organizations fought that decision aserting that the right to a job is a fundamental human right Barton and Oliver, 197 . Education Education ocupies a unique position in modern society today because it tends to benefit both society and the individual as it is considered a public god Psacharopoulos and Wodhal 1985 . The advances in knowledge and scientific understanding sem to strengthen the optimism that society holds of education Lauder et al.206 . 206 , education is perceived by almost al people as the means by which to improve individuals' lives and an understanding of their place in the world. In some societies, for instance the Pakistani, disabled girl children education is not considered important Shah, 190 . Such bariers to aces to education chalenge many disabled people and compel them to be dependant upon their families in many countries Priestley, 201 . In adresing these maters, the United Nations, through the various protocols such as the Salamanca Statement, the Dakar Framework, the Jomtien Conference and others, seks to Ensure equal educational oportunities at al levels for children, youth and adults with disabilities in integrated setings, taking into ful acount of individual diferences and situations World Sumit on Social Development, Comitment 6, item f, 195 . However, in most African States, these policies and legislation were absent and a concerted efort was made to put them in place through the African Unions' Continental Plan of Action which is aimed at implementing priority activities on disability during the African Decade of Persons with Disabilities 19-209 Secretariat of the African Decade, 204 . World Sumit on Social Development 195 . the les developed countries have not ben able to integrate disabled people within the global economic and social development as quickly as others, partly because of their chosen policies and partly because of factors outside their control such as imposed economic structural adjustment programes SAPs , debt burden caused by the Breton Wod Institutes and wars and conflict. 198 , Poverty and disabled people; chalenging dominant debates and policies , Disability & Society , Vol. 19 Chalenging globalization as discourse and phenomenon , International Journal of Lifelong Education , Vol. 196 , Education, Globalization and Economic Development , Journal of Educational Policy , Vol. Burbules, N and Tores, A.C., 20 Globalization and Education , London: Routledge. Cheng, Y.C., 204 Fostering local knowledge and human development in globalization of education , International Journal of Educational Management , Vol. Department for International Development, 20 Disability, Poverty and Development , Department for International Development, ONLINE-htp:w.dfid.gov.uk . Disabled People International, 198 Towards an Inclusive 21st Century Mexico City, Disability Awarenes in Action Newsleter 6 , November. Disability World, 20 UNICEF & Disabled Children and Youths Bi-Monthly Newsleter of International Disability, News and Views, Isue No. Driedger, D., 1987 'Disabled People's International', Rehabilitation Gazete , 28: p. Frieden L., 202 The Global Disability Comunity Must Respond to the Critical Chalenges of the 21st Century , Adres to Rehabilitation International European Conference in Aachen, Germany, November 1th. , Disability and The Life Course; Guines, P, 203 Globalization , London: Hoder & Stoughton. 203 Taming Globalization ; and Whyte, S., eds , 195 Disability and Culture, Berkeley Ca., University of California Pres. International Labour Organization, 1983 Convention Concerning Vocational Rehabilitation and Employment Disabled Persons , Geneva, ILO, C159, June 20th. and Hasley, 206 Education , Globalization and Social Change, Oxford: Oxford University Pres. Mets, R., 204 Disability and Development , A Background paper prepared fro the Disability and Development Research Agenda Meting Washington D.C. Priestley, M., ed , 201 Disability and the Life Course; 1985 Education for development : an analysis of investment choices , New York: Oxford University Pres, for the World Bank. Richler, D., 205 Maintaining Disability in Development Programs of African Countries: Promoting Inclusive Education , In International Rehabilitation review, Vol. Globalization , London: Sage. Some Historical Reflections on Disability Movement in South Africa , Disability World Isue No. 1, Nov-Dec. Salmonsn, A., 205 , Disability is not Inability , Baseline Study towards inclusive Education In Blantyre, Balaka and Muchinga Districts in Malaw i, Institute of Public Management. A review of Country-Led Aid Cordination in Ghana Paris: Asociation for the Development of Education in Africa , Self Direction Comunity Project, 202 The Medical and Social Model of Disability Module , Salford: University of Salford. Shah, F., 190 , Disability, Self Help and Social Change , In Priestley, M., 201 , Disability and the Life Course; Secretariat of the African Debate, 204 A brief Overview of the mandate of the African Decade for Disabled Persons Secretariat , Adis Ababa: African Union. Shakespear, T., 20 Disability: Rights and Wrongs , Oxon: Routledge. and Oliver, M., eds , 193 Disabling Bariers-Enabling Environments . Thomas, P., 205 Mainstreaming Disability in Development: Country level Research India Country Report Disability Disability Knowledge and Research. - . United Nations, 1975 Declaration on the Rights of Disabled Persons , General Asembly Resolution 347, 9, New York, United Nations. World Programe of Action Concerning Disabled Persons , New York: United Nations. United Nations, 194 ‘Towards a society for al: Long-term Strategy to Implement the World Programe of Action concerning Disabled Persons to the Year 20 and Beyond', anex to Implementation of the World Programe of Action concerning Disabled Persons , Report of the Secretary- General, 27 September. United Nations Development Programe, 197 , Human Development Report, New York, Oxford University:Pres. United Nations, 206 Paper on Global Disability Network Adoption of the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities , New York, United Nations. UNESCO, 1 93 , Standard Rules on the Equalization of Oportunities for Persons with Disabilities . UNESCO, 195 Disability Awarenes In Action , New York: UNESCO. World Sumit on Social Development, 195 Report of the world sumit for social Development , Copenhagen March, 6th -12th.
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